Julia and Mandelbrot sets in MIPS
1 Introduction
The term fractal was introduced by French mathematician Benoˆıt Mandelbrot in the mid-1970s to refer to strange and beautiful mathematical sets that have similar structures at all scales. In this assignment you will draw images of fractals using a memory mapped display within MARS.
While there are many types of fractals, some of the most widely known are related to the behaviour of a given function when the results of the function are repeatedly given back to the function as argu- ments. This process is known as iteration. Given a function f (x), the iteration of a starting value x first produces f(x), then f(f(x)), then f(f(f(x))), then f(f(f(f(x)))), and so on.
Consider the simple one dimensional example, f(x) = 1 − x2, and let us start with x0 = 0.5. After one iteration of the function we get x1 = 0.75, then x2 = 0.4375, and so on. If we start with the value x0 = 0.5, the generated sequence will always remain between 0 and 1. In fact this happens if we start with any number x0 in the interval [0, 1] because when we square a number between 0 and 1 we always get another number between 0 and 1 (likewise, subtracting this number from 1 also produces a result between0and1).Incontrast,ifwestartwithx0 =2,thesequenceis{2,−3,−8,−63,−3968,…}.
This simple example shows that for some starting values the numbers in the sequence get very big (that is, the sequence grows without bound), while for others the sequence remains bounded. We can thus define a set: the set of values that have the property that the sequence starting at any value in the set and produced by iterating the given function does not grow without bound.
This is exactly the principle on which the well known Julia sets are based, except that rather than having a one dimensional function, we have a function which maps two dimensional coordinates of the plane back onto the plane (the plane in this case is actually the complex plane). Specifically, this function is
f(x,y)=(x2 −y2 +a, 2xy+b), (1) where a and b are constants. For example, with (a, b) = (0.25, 0.5), consider the initial point (0, 0).
(x0, y0) = (0, 0)
(x1,y1)=(02 −02 +0.25, 2×0×0+0.5)
= (0.25, 0.5)
(x2,y2)=(0.252 −0.52 +0.25, 2×0.25×0.5+0.5),
= (0.0625, 0.75)
(x3, y3) = (−0.30859375, 0.59375)
(x4, y4) = (−0.0073089599609375, 0.133544921875) (x5, y5) = (0.23221917473711073, 0.4980478510260582)
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(x6, y6) = (0.0558740832039101, 0.7313125218897254) (x7, y7) = (−0.2816960914988327, 0.5817228333922557) (x8, y8) = (−0.009048766924195428, 0.1722619029955499) (x9, y9) = …
Now let us try a different example. Consider the starting point (x0, y0) = (1, 0).
(x0, y0) = (1, 0)
(x1,y1)=(12 −02 +0.25, 2×1×0+0.5)
= (1.25, 0.5)
(x2,y2)=(1.252 −0.52 +0.25, 2×1.25×0.5+0.5),
(x3, y3) (x4, y4) (x5, y5) (x6, y6) (x7, y7)
= (1.5625, 1.75)
= (−0.37109375, 5.96875)
= (−35.23826599121094, −3.929931640625) = (1226.5410273673479, 277.4679529592395) = (1427414.6768959584, 680652.1561682811) = …
Notice that with this starting point the sequence grows without bound.
For a given (a, b), the corresponding Julia set contains the points (x, y) that do not grow without
bound upon iteration of Equation 1. This is the black region in the left most region at the top of the image, while the coloured regions show points that do grow without bound, and the colour gives an indication of how fast. In contrast to the definition of a Julia set, the Mandelbrot set is the set of points (a, b) in the plane for which the corresponding Julia set function does not exhibit unbounded growth when iterated starting at (0,0). Finally, notice that Equation 1 is very simple when written with complex numbers. For a given complex constant c = a + bi, and starting point z = x + yi, we iterate the function z2 + c.
2 Before getting started
This assignment is organized in a manner that should help you make progress toward the final objective while testing small parts of your code along the way. However, there is also some important details and advice you should review in this section before getting started.
2.1 Float register conventions
It is important to implement the assignment as specified and follow register conventions for grading. Use the following conventions for the floating point registers.
$f0 $f1 $f2 $f3 $f12 $f13 $f14 $f15 $f4 through $f18
$f20 through $f31
Function return values Function arguments Temporary registers Save registers
Note that the floating point save registers are the only registers you can assume are preserved across function calls. In your functions, you must save these registers to the stack with a swc1 instruction before using them, and restore them before returning. The standard convention for the argument registers is
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to only use $f12 and $f14 when passing float values, which is likely to simplify assigning argument registers to functions when there is a mix of double and single precision arguments. However, you will only use single precision floating point in this assignment, thus, we will bend this rule and allow the use of all four float arguments. If a function takes both int and float arguments, you should simply assigntheminorder.Forinstance,inthefunctionf(int a, float b, int c, float d, float e) you should assume that integer a is in $a0, float b is in $f12, integer c is in $a1, float d is in $f13, and float e is in $f14.
2.2 MIPS coding advice and avoiding pitfalls
Write good comments in your code to help you keep track of what you are trying to accomplish. This will help you create your solution, and will help the TAs better understand your code. You might find it useful to keep a number or references close at hand when working on your solution: the register conventions, the SYSCALL reference in the MARS help, the documentation of instructions on the green quick reference sheet in the textbook, and the definitive instruction reference in the appendix of the textbook (e.g., Appendix B10 of the 4th edition). Note that MARS may occasionally get stuck in a bad state and run slowly, but this is easily resolved by restarting MARS. Finally, here is a bit of advice to help you avoid some common pitfalls.
Watch for errors in register usage when cutting and pasting or in code that is doing similar oper- ations to different variables. For instance, repeating a register in wrong places, which can happen when you want to do something to both x and y, and instead you do it to x and x.
Careful not to forget or confuse the definition of an instruction. It is easy enough to confuse move a b with move b a, given that the copy direction is different for other instructions, for instance, consider what gets modified when invoking mtc1, mfc1, lw and sw.
Careful if you copy and paste code that saves registers on the stack from the beginning of your function to the end of your function. A common error is to forget to change the sw instructions to lw in the pasted code. Becarefultodecreaseandincreaseyourstackpointerbythesameamountwhenwritingthestart and end of your functions.
Always write function headers to show where your procedures start, and what they do. That is, you will also have labels for both internal branches and loops, so it helps if the procedure entry labels have greater visibility.
Choose good names for labels within a procedure, that is, for your conditional code and loops. Moreover, give them a prefix to identify the current function. For example, if you want a loop label in functions f1 and f2, then f1Loop and f2Loop would make good unique labels.
Assignment objectives (24+i marks total)
You will write a program to compute iterations of the function defined above, by first writing some helper functions. Once your are able to compute iterations, you will write some additional helper functions, and eventually draw the structure of different Julia sets, and the Mandelbrot set. Use single precision floating point numbers for all your calculations. Please follow function specifications exactly and implement label names as requested to allow your code to be tested during marking.
1. printComplex and printNewLine (2 marks)
Implement a function printComplex that takes two float arguments, $f12 and $f13, and prints them to the RunIO console as a complex number using SYSCALLs. For instance, if you make the
call printComplex(1.1, 2.3) then you should see “1.1 + 2.3 i”. Implement another func- tion called printNewLine to print a newline character “\n”. Use the .asciiz directive in your .data segment to define the null terminated ASCII strings you need for both functions. Test your functions by adding code at the top of the .text section that uses your functions to print the complex number stored as a pair of floats stored at label JuliaC1. Note we will always store the real part in the lower register number or the lower memory address, while the imaginary part will be stored in the higher register number of higher memory address.
2. multComplex (2 marks) Implement function with signature
(float, float) = multComplex( float a, float b, float c, float d )
that computes the complex product (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − db) + (ad + bc)i. Following the register conventions as described in the previous section, the real and complex parts of the product will go into return registers $f0 and $f1. Test your function by adding code to your .text segment that computes the square of the complex number stored at label JuliaC1 and prints the result. Did you get the correct result?
3. iterateVerbose (4 marks)
Implement a verbose iteration function with the following signature.
int iterateVerbose( int n, float a, float b, float x0, float y0 )
This function should compute the first n iterations of Equation 1 using the the starting point (x0, y0). Your implementation should use your multComplex function. Your program should check if the squared magnitude of the current iteration exceeds the global constant defined at label bound, and if you discover that bound < x2 + y2 then stop iterating and return the number of iterations that were below the bound.
Because this is the verbose implementation, you should print all the iterations as you go, and likewise, print the return value iteration count before returning.
Add code to the main .text segment to test function. For example, calling iterateVerbose( 10, 0.25, 0.5, 0.0, 0.0 ) will return 10 in $v0, and generate the following output.
x0 + y0 i = 0.0 + 0.0 i
x1 + y1 i = 0.25 + 0.5 i
x2 + y2 i = 0.0625 + 0.75 i
x3 + y3 i = -0.30859375 + 0.59375 i
x4 + y4 i = -0.00730896 + 0.13354492 i
x5 + y5 i = 0.23221917 + 0.49804786 i
x6 + y6 i = 0.05587408 + 0.7313125 i
x7 + y7 i = -0.28169608 + 0.58172286 i
x8 + y8 i = -0.00904879 + 0.1722619 i
x9 + y9 i = 0.22040772 + 0.49688247 i
In another example, calling iterateVerbose( 10, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 0.0 ) will return 3 and produce the following output.
x0 + y0 i = 1.0 + 0.0 i
x1 + y1 i = 1.25 + 0.5 i
x2 + y2 i = 1.5625 + 1.75 i
x3 + y3 i = -0.37109375 + 5.96875 i
Remember that it is possible that your output may not match exactly because floating point com-
putations are approximate. 4. iterate (i marks)
Create a function called iterate that is identical to iterateVerbose, except that it does not print anything to the RunIO console. Because this is so easy given the previous step, this step is only worth one imaginary mark.
5. pixel2ComplexInWindow (2 marks)
To draw Julia and Mandelbrot sets, we require a way of mapping a region of the complex plane to the array of pixels that make up the bitmap display. Create a function with the signature
( float x, float y ) = pixel2ComplexInWindow( int col, int row )
that takes an integer pixel location (col, row) where col is the column and row is the row within the bitmap display. The bitmap width w and height h are provided as constants in the static .data segment at the label resolution. The return value, a complex number x + yi, is computed using the window defined at label windowlrbt, where the letters lrbt refers to, in order, the left, right, bottom, and top coordinates. Left and right provide the real-axis range, while bottom top provide the imaginary-axis range. Ultimately, your function should compute
x= col(r−l)+l, w
y = row (t − b) + b . h
For integer pixel coordinates and resolution width and height, use mtc1 and cvt.s.w to move them to the coprocessor and to cast them to floats so that you can use them in your computation. Note that we ignore a small problem in the equations above, which is that the upper left of the bitmap display corresponds to (col, row) = (0, 0), but this will map to the lower left corner of the complex window defined by windowlrbt (this is not a big issue with fractals because we are not likely to notice the image is upside down). Keep this in mind when you test your function. Test your function for (0, 0), (256, 128), and (512, 256), printing the results to the console, and make
sure that you get the lower-left, middle, and upper-right, as expected, based on windowlrbt. 6. drawJulia (4 marks)
Implement a function drawJulia( float a, float b ), which receives the complex constant a+bi in two float arguments. The function should loop over every integer pixel location (col, row) in the bitmap display, and compute a starting point for iteration using pixel2ComplexInWindow. Given the complex constant and starting point, use iterate to check if the staring point grows without bounds. Load the static constant maxIter into the n parameter for the iterate function.
If the iterate function returns before the maximum number of iterations, then you will know that the bound was reached, and that the point is not in the Julia set. In this case, compute a colour by calling the provided function computeColour( iterations ). The return value is an ARGB encoded word that slowly changes between green, blue, and red in a loop as the iterations increase. The scale static data constant allows the speed of colour changes to be tuned (feel free to experiment, but the default 16 should work fine). If the maximum number of iterations is reached, you should instead choose the colour black (zero). To set the pixel at location (col, row) in the bitmap display of resolution w by h you write a word to the location
bitmapDisplay + 4(w × row + col). (2) However, since you are visiting each pixel in the display in order, you will probably organize your
code to simply add 4 to a pointer to step between pixels. Page 5
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Note that lowering the maximum iterations constant will make your program run faster, but will result in lower quality images (missing details at the set boundary). Also note that by default, the resolution is set to the bitmap display tool default of 512 wide by 256 high, but feel free to edit these and adjust the tool settings to draw smaller images when debugging.
Test your function with various constants. Note that the there are several complex window re- gions defined, but commented out. Note the comments that identify the best window for viewing a typical Julia set. See the following link for examples of what you should expect to see.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_set#Quadratic_polynomials
7. drawMandelbrot (2 marks)
The Mandelbrot set is the set of points (a, b) in the plane for which the corresponding Julia set function does not exhibit unbounded growth when iterated with the starting point (0, 0). Write a function drawMandelbrot() to draw the Mandelbrot set in the bitmap display in a manner similar to drawJulia. That is, use the defined resolution of the bitmap display, and let the region of the complex plane be defined by windowlrbt. However, for a Mandelbrot set you will now compute constants (a, b) with pixel2ComplexInWindow and iterate starting with (0, 0).
Several interesting window regions are defined for viewing different parts of the Mandel- brot set. Test your code by commenting out all but the desired window region and adding a jal drawMandelbrot to your main .text segment. Finally note that if you are using a zoomed win- dow region, you may want to increase the number of iterations to better identify points that are not in the set! In all the windows provided, a maximum iteration count of 512 should probably be more than enough.
8. Bonus (4 marks)
This bonus is not for the faint of heart, as there is already an ample number of challenges to
complete the assignment steps above. However, if you really have the time and curiosity, write the following three functions.
( float p, float q ) = complexSqrt( float a, float b )
plotComplex( float x, float y )
juliaReverse( int n, float a, float b, float x0, float y0 )
The function complexSqrt computes the square root. The function plotComplex takes a point (x, y) in the complex plane, and uses windowlrbt and resolution to compute a pixel location, and provided that it is in bounds of the bitmap display, sets the pixel to the colour of your choice (choose wisely to contrast the colours generated by computeColour). Given an arbitrary start- ing point, juliaReverse computes x + yi − (a + bi) at each iteration, choosing randomly the positive or negative square root on each iteration (see SYSCALL for random number generation), and drawing the point with plotComplex. The starting point can be arbitrary (e.g., zero), and sub- sequent iterations will quicly converge to the boundary of the Julia set. You can use the function to apply frosting to the tips of your Julia sets by adding juliaReverse as a second drawing pass after calling drawJulia.
What to Submit
Submit your .asm file. Be sure you have your name and student number in a com-ment at the top of your file. Be sure to check that your submission is correctly submitted by downloading and examining your submission. You cannot receive any marks for assignments with missing or corrupt files. Note that you are encouraged to discuss assignments with your classmates, but not to the point of sharing code and answers.